A cognitive map is a mental representation of a space, reconstructed from perceptions, which may not align perfectly with reality.
The map is not the territory.
Five key elements help people make sense of their surroundings:
Paths
Landmarks
Districts
Edges
Nodes
Can you spot the elements in this BOTW shot?
Cognitive References
Point References: Buildings, trees, and other landmarks.
Linear References: Roads, sidewalks, and other paths.
Zonal References: Neighborhoods, cities, and other districts.
Paths
A path is a linear space that directs movement.
For example, the roads from the Great Plateau to Hyrule Castle in The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild guide players toward the ultimate goal. Hyrule Castle, a clear and imposing landmark, draws the player’s eye and provides constant orientation.
Dead Reckoning/Path Integration
Where I am now is where I was previously, plus all the steps taken since my last reference point.
Path integration mirrors the calculus concept of calculating the area under a curve. Players integrate steps over time to build a sense of location.
Imagine ascending a spiral staircase in a closed tower. You quickly lose your sense of direction as the walls block any external reference points, leaving you unsure of your rotation or elevation.
Now picture ascending an open spiral tower with visible surroundings. The consistent references—landscapes, landmarks, or the sky—anchor your position and help maintain your orientation. Without these external points, you can easily become disoriented, disrupting your mental map and creating “wrong areas.”
Anchoring
Landmarks act as anchoring points, refreshing the reference frame. Without them, players are prone to getting lost as their integration drifts.
Paths simplify navigation. When players are lost, they instinctively follow paths, reducing decisions to simple choices like left or right.
Landmarks
Landmarks are single, memorable features. These can be visual, narrative, or experiential, like towers, monuments, or statues. They naturally catch players’ attention and serve as anchoring points for navigation.
Directionality
The best landmarks are stationary and directional. They provide distinct “faces” from different angles, making orientation easier.
For example, the Great Sphinx of Giza looks different from the front than from the side. In contrast, radially symmetrical landmarks, like water towers, are less effective for orientation.
This tower is radially symmetrical. From a distance you can't use it to understand where you are.
Sphinx in Indiana Jones and The Great Circle. It has multiple "faces".
Districts
A district is a region with distinct characteristics. Examples include biomes, industrial zones, or forest areas.
Squint Test. When squinting at a map, the districts should still be distinct.
Object Clustering
District elements should be grouped to reinforce memory:
Semantic clustering: A haunted forest or sci-fi lab.
Mechanical clustering: Crafting stations or shops in specific districts. Gameplay-centric.
Visual clustering: Consistent architecture or color schemes, such as blue and gold banners marking a royal palace district.
Clustering reinforces memory associations, e.g., “I craft in the workshop” or “I find berries in the orchard”.
Edges
An edge is a linear reference that separates or defines spaces, like walls, cliffs, or gates. Edges are often vertical, as players move horizontally in most games.
Deliberate Boundaries
Crisp edges enhance cognitive maps and improve orientation.
Blurred boundaries make blurred cognitive maps. Sharp edges trigger the doorway effect, where crossing thresholds resets working memory.
Nodes
A node is where multiple paths meet. Examples include intersections, transit hubs, or central hubs in games.
Nodes often connect districts and feature landmarks to emphasize their importance. They can be placed at the edges of multiple adjacent districts, serving as a focal point for transitions between areas.
Fast travel from your nearest intersection in Indiana Jones and The Great Circle. It "makes sense".
Applying Cognitive Map Elements
Audit and Distinguish Your Design
Analyze your paths, landmarks, districts, edges, and nodes. Sketch your level plan using only the five elements. The plan should be readable and recognizable before adding details.
This is where the emotion and storytelling come in, and the experience takes shape.
Just because you have an element in the plan, it doesn’t mean it will show up when playing the game. If you notice a strong landmark on the plan, but it doesn’t stand out when playing, that’s a sign to edit the landmark.
Ponder:
Does the player have enough point references like landmarks?
Are they directional?
Can they be seen from multiple locations?
Are the districts different enough? Can you name one characteristic for each?
How does the squint test look?
Do you have clear paths?
Can the player see the path direction without any other context? I.e., are they moving forward or backward on the path?
How’s the Dead Reckoning/Path Integration? Is there too much space between reference points? Too much and it’s easy to get lost. Too little and the space can feel linear and lose the sense of exploration.
Do you have memorable edges?
Keep in mind you can invert some of these rules if you intend to make the player feel lost and confused.
Test Without Guidance
Play without GPS, mini-maps, or radars to gauge whether navigation relies on egocentric (player-centered) or allocentric (environment-centered) mapping.
Egocentric mapping is based on the player's position and perspective, like navigating a dense forest where you focus on the direction you’re heading relative to your starting point.
Allocentric mapping relies on external landmarks and the environment layout, such as spotting a distant mountain and orienting yourself toward it.
What balance do you want the player to experience?
Conclusion
Cognitive maps shape how players perceive and navigate spaces.
Use paths, landmarks, districts, edges, and nodes to create clear, memorable environments.
Use directional landmarks and crisp edges to enhance spatial understanding.
